Naturally occurring mitochondrial-derived peptides are age-dependent regulators of apoptosis, insulin sensitivity, and inflammatory markers

Khavinson V.Kh., Bondarev I.E., Butyugov A.A.

Khavinson's foundational paper claiming epithalon upregulates telomerase in human somatic cells. Provocative, Soviet-school methodology, repeatedly cited and rarely replicated outside the original group — read it knowing both.

Yoshino M. et al.

Ten weeks of 250 mg/day NMN in 25 prediabetic women improved insulin-stimulated glucose disposal by 25±7% — comparable to a major weight loss. No effect on body weight, blood pressure, lipids, or hepatic fat. The most-cited piece of human NMN data; small, female-only, single-site.

Martens C.R. et al.

The crossover trial that became the floor for every NR claim. 1,000 mg/day for six weeks safely raised whole-blood NAD+ — but the secondary outcomes (blood pressure, arterial stiffness, performance) moved only modestly. Confirms biology, not clinical benefit.

Goldstein A.L.

Goldstein's own four-decade overview of thymosin alpha-1 — approved abroad as Zadaxin for hepatitis B/C, sepsis, and as an oncology adjuvant. Useful framing for what the peptide is actually doing immunologically; the US clinical-trial column remains thin.